Category: History

The Paris Gun is a remarkable piece of artillery developed by the German Empire during the First World War. With a barrel so long it had to be supported by cables, it had a range of over 100 km and had to account for the rotation of the Earth to hit its target.

At the time, its projectile was the highest altitude man-made object.

The Paris Gun was conceived as part of Germany’s strategic effort to break the stalemate on the Western Front by targeting Paris, the French capital, directly from German lines.

It had unprecedented range, but its actual effect was rather limited in comparison to the resources used to create it.

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Background

As the war settled into a stalemate with trench warfare dominating the Western Front, military leaders on both sides sought new methods to break the deadlock and achieve decisive victories. Germany, in particular, faced the dual challenge of overcoming entrenched positions and inflicting psychological damage on the French civilian population and government to force a resolution to the conflict.

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It was here that the idea of a supergun, capable of bombarding Paris from German-controlled territory, was conceived.

The project was led by the German arms manufacturer Krupp, with Fritz Rausenberger, the head of Krupp’s design office, playing a pivotal role. The goal was to create an artillery piece capable of launching shells over a distance of more than 100 kilometers, far beyond the range of any existing gun.

This ambition truly pushed the boundaries of contemporary artillery technology.

Krupp’s engineers embarked on a rigorous process of design and testing, exploring various calibers, barrel lengths, and propellant charges to achieve the desired range. The project was shrouded in secrecy, with only a select group of engineers and military officials aware of its full scope.

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To achieve such enormous range, the Paris Gun’s barrel had to be extremely long and capable of resisting a very large propellant charge. The barrels were constructed from 38 cm (15 inch) naval gun barrels, bored out, and then refitted with a 21 cm (8.2 inch) rifled liner.

A weapon of this size was simply too heavy to be moved by carriage, as was typical of the day, so it had to be moved by rail. A special carriage had to be developed that allowed it to be transported to its firing location.

The range was so great that its designers had to accommodate the rotation of the Earth into firing solutions. They consulted the works of Gustave Gaspard Coriolis, a pioneering French mathmatician who’s calculations formed the basis of the Coriolis force.

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The German High Command saw the Paris Gun as not only a weapon, but as a means to demoralize the French populace and government by demonstrating that not even the French capital was beyond the reach of German military power.

This psychological warfare aspect was considered as important as the physical damage the weapon could inflict.

Despite the ambitious nature of the project, the development of the Paris Gun proceeded at a remarkable pace. By early 1918, the gun was ready for combat deployment.

Design of the Paris Gun

Because none of the Paris Guns were ever found after the war, and many of the documents relating to them were destroyed, many aspects of the weapon are not known.

The most striking feature of the Paris Gun was its immense barrel length. At approximately 37 meters (121 feet), the barrel was significantly longer than any existing artillery piece of the time. This extraordinary length was crucial for achieving the high muzzle velocity needed to propel shells over the unprecedented distance to Paris.

It was so long that a cable and frame, resembling a suspension bridge, had to be added along the barrel to stop it drooping.

The barrel was constructed from a series of steel tubes, each carefully fitted inside the other to create a reinforced structure capable of withstanding the immense pressures generated during firing. However, each shot induced significant wear on the barrel, so much so that the ammunition had to be specially designed to account for this.

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The barrels were good for 65 rounds before needing replacement. But the wear was so great, that each round had to be slightly large in diameter than the last, to ensure a proper seal against the barrel. Each of the 65 rounds had to be fired in a specific sequence, constantly increasing in size.

Once all shells had been fired, the barrel would be sent back to Krupp for refurbishment.

The shell itself was made from thick steel to survive the initial blast and had a blunted nose. Inside was 7 kg of explosives, primed to detonate by two fuses. The front of the shell was covered by a thin, aerodynamic ballistic cap.

Weighing about 106 kilograms (234 pounds) and containing a relatively small explosive charge, the shells were optimized more for distance than destructive power. The propellant charge was another area of innovation.

A carefully calibrated amount of powder was used to provide the necessary propulsion without exceeding the material limits of the barrel or the shell. The precise formulation and quantity of the propellant were critical to achieving the desired muzzle velocity and range to hit the target.

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Its platform needed to be moved via rail to its firing location. Here, a large concrete emplacement was constructed and the gun would be mounted on it.

Given the extreme range, calculations had to include the Earth’s rotation, air resistance at different altitudes, and even the temperature and humidity effects on the propellant and the air density along the shell’s flight path.

These calculations were complex and required a deep understanding of ballistics and atmospheric science, making the Paris Gun’s operation as much an exercise in physics as in artillery warfare.

Upon firing, the 106 kg round reached an altitude of 12 miles (63,000 ft) in just 25 seconds. 65 seconds later, it reached a peak altitude of 24 miles (127,000 ft), making it the highest man-made object in history at the time. It reached its target 180 seconds later, having covered a 92 mile path over 67 miles of land below.

Usage

Operating the Paris Gun required a large, highly skilled crew. Personnel were trained in a range of disciplines, from ballistics and meteorology to mechanics and explosives handling.

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The physical damage caused by the Paris Gun is less catastrophic than might be expected from such a formidable weapon. Over its operational period, starting in March 1918, the guns fired somewhere in the vicinity of 350 shells into Paris, resulting in the deaths of approximately 250 people and causing hundreds of injuries.

The shells, designed more for range than explosive power, caused damage to buildings, infrastructure, and public spaces. Notably, one shell struck the Saint-Gervais and Saint-Protais Church on Good Friday, causing a roof collapse that resulted in numerous casualties.

Psychologically, the impact of the Paris Gun was profound and far-reaching. The ability of the Germans to strike the French capital from over 100 kilometers away, without any prior warning, instilled a deep sense of vulnerability and fear among the Parisian population.

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The randomness of the attacks, combined with the inability of French military and civil defenses to predict or prevent them, exacerbated the sense of helplessness. This aspect of psychological warfare was an integral part of the gun’s design and deployment strategy, aiming to demoralize the French populace and pressure the government into seeking peace terms favorable to Germany.

But strategically, the Paris Gun had limited impact on the outcome of World War I. Its primary objective—to break the morale of the French population and force a quick end to the war—was not achieved. The French military and civilian leadership remained resolute, and the Parisian population, though shaken, adapted to the threat with air raid precautions and other defensive measures.

The gun did, however, compel the French to divert resources to defenses and intelligence efforts to locate and neutralize the weapon, illustrating the strategic distraction it represented.

While some of the concrete emplacements used by the Paris guns were found by the Allies, they were never able to get their hands on any of the guns. One was reportedly transported back to Germany, and was likely cut up to prevent it from being captured.

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None have ever been seen since.

The Fahrpanzer, a term that translates to “mobile armor” or “armored gun carriage,”. Developed in the late 19th century, this innovative system was a response to the evolving needs of modern warfare, where mobility, rapid deployment, and the effective use of artillery became increasingly crucial.

The concept behind the armored gun turret, equipped with a 57mm QF gun and accommodating two crew members along with ammunition, was its rapid deployability to necessary locations for quick emplacement. The turret’s mobility was facilitated by wheels, which, being unpowered, necessitated the use of horses for transportation.

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Once the turret reached its designated position, the wheels would be detached to stabilize the unit for operation. Additionally, alternative variants were designed to operate on narrow-gauge railway tracks within fortifications, enabling them to retreat into protective shelters under heavy bombardment and subsequently reposition to counter enemy attacks.

Origins

The development of the Fahrpanzer was driven by the need for a mobile artillery platform that could quickly be deployed to critical areas on the battlefield or within a defensive perimeter. Traditional artillery pieces of the time were typically stationary or required significant effort to relocate, which limited their tactical utility in dynamic combat situations.

The German military envisioned a solution that combined the protective qualities of armor with the mobility of wheeled or rail-mounted platforms, allowing for rapid redeployment in response to enemy movements or to reinforce vulnerable points in a defensive line.

The Fahrpanzer represented a significant engineering challenge. It required the integration of several key technologies: an armored turret capable of withstanding small arms fire and shrapnel, a mobile chassis that could be moved by horse-drawn means or along pre-laid narrow-gauge railway tracks, and a quick-firing gun that could deliver effective firepower against enemy troops and fortifications.

The design process involved careful consideration of weight, mobility, armor thickness, and firepower to create a balanced system that met these operational requirements.

Starting in 1878, Hermann Gruson, a prominent German industrialist, led his Magdeburg-based company to specialize in the design and manufacture of armored gun turrets used in fortifications. By 1892, Gruson’s enterprise had merged with the industrial giant Krupp, significantly enhancing their production capabilities and expanding the reach of their products.

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The turrets crafted by Gruson’s works were integrated into defensive structures across various European countries, including Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, and Italy. Among the notable innovations produced by his company was the Fahrpanzer, a mobile armored turret that functioned as a movable pillbox.

Armoured Turret

The Fahrpanzer represented a significant engineering challenge. It required the integration of several key technologies: an armored turret capable of withstanding small arms fire and shrapnel, a mobile chassis that could be moved by horse-drawn means or along pre-laid narrow-gauge railway tracks, and a quick-firing gun that could deliver effective firepower against enemy troops and fortifications.

The design process involved careful consideration of weight, mobility, armor thickness, and firepower to create a balanced system that met these operational requirements.

Innovation in the Fahrpanzer’s design was evident in its revolving turret, which allowed for a 360-degree field of fire, and in its use of armor plating, which provided essential protection for the crew and the gun.

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The choice of a 57mm quick-firing gun balanced the need for effective firepower with the constraints imposed by the platform’s size and mobility. Additionally, the ability to quickly emplace the turret by removing its wheels or to retract it into protective bunkers on railway-mounted versions reflected a sophisticated approach to the challenges of mobile defense.

Technological Features

The design of the Fahrpanzer reflected the industrial era’s ingenuity and the period’s fascination with mechanization and armor. The carriage was usually constructed from steel, featuring a cylindrical or polygonal turret that could rotate 360 degrees, providing all-around fire coverage.

This turret was mounted on a chassis that could be either railroad wheels for deployment along railways or conventional wheels for use on roads or prepared surfaces.

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The gun, typically a light artillery piece or a machine gun, was mounted inside the turret, with ammunition stored within easy reach of the crew. The Fahrpanzer’s mobility allowed it to be towed by horses or, in some cases, mechanical tractors, which were becoming more common at the time. This mobility was a significant advantage, allowing the gun to be repositioned quickly in response to changing battlefield conditions or to be withdrawn swiftly in case of a retreat.

The Gun

The Fahrpanzer was equipped with a single quick-firing gun, with calibers ranging from 37 mm to 65 mm, though the most commonly used were the 3.7 cm, 5.3 cm, and 5.7 cm variants. These guns were mounted in a turret that could rotate a full 360 degrees, offering the flexibility to aim in any direction, with an elevation range from +10 to -10 degrees.

The two-person crew inside the Fahrpanzer operated the gun and was shielded by the vehicle’s armor, at least until their ammunition was depleted. However, the act of firing the gun often significantly destabilized the Fahrpanzer, adversely affecting the accuracy of subsequent shots.

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The limited elevation of the gun positioned it as a direct fire weapon, primarily intended for engaging infantry in open terrain, utilizing common, canister, and shrapnel shells.

In addition to the standard Fahrpanzer, the German military also deployed the 5.3 cm gun in specialized Gruson Works turrets, known as the 5 cm SchnellFeuer Kanone in Panzerlafette, and a wheeled pedestal-mounted version, the 5 cm SchnellFeuer Kanone in Kasemattenlafette, designated for armored casemates in frontier fortifications.

Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary developed their own versions, the 6 cm Fahrpanzer Kanone M98 and the 6 cm Kasemattkanone M98/M99, which were, in fact, 5.7 cm caliber guns, with the Austro-Hungarian Army’s designation system rounding up to the nearest centimeter.

Fahrpanzer Goes Operational

The Kingdoms of Italy and Bulgaria also acquired variants of the 5.7 cm Gruson guns, with Bulgaria purchasing Fahrpanzers and Italy installing theirs in retractable turrets, like those at Colle delle Finestre.

However, the Italian army, facing a shortage of field artillery, repurposed several of these guns from border fortifications, mounting them on simple two-wheeled carriages to serve as infantry support artillery, under the designation Cannone da 57/25 Gruson.

The operational history of the Fahrpanzer is a reflection of the changing nature of warfare at the turn of the 20th century. They were primarily used for fortifying important positions, such as bridges, railway junctions, or strategic points along a defensive line. The idea was that these mobile fortifications could be quickly moved to where they were most needed, providing instant reinforcement against enemy attacks.

In practice, the Fahrpanzer units were part of a larger network of fixed fortifications and defensive strategies. They were not frontline combat vehicles but rather tools for strategic, often static defense, meant to bolster prepared positions or to serve as a mobile reserve that could counterattack or plug gaps in the line.

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Romania acquired 334 Gruson Fahrpanzers, choosing the 53 mm caliber variant. During the Battle of the Argeș these mobile armored turrets were initially positioned along the Siret Line at various strategic locations: Focșani, where 15 batteries comprised 6 turrets each; Nămoloasa, featuring 24 batteries with 3 to 5 turrets each; Galați, where there were 30 batteries of 6 turrets and an additional 10 batteries of 3 turrets; and Brateș, which was outfitted with 10 turrets.

Beyond the Siret Line, the bridgeheads at Cernavodă and Turtucaia were fortified with 28 turrets, while Silistra received 17 turrets. These Fahrpanzer units served in their original roles for approximately two decades.

Fahrpanzer Limitations

Around the time of World War I, between 1914 and 1916, they underwent a transformation into infantry support guns by being mounted on gun carriages produced in Romania. Some were even adapted for use as anti-aircraft artillery.

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Despite its innovative design, the Fahrpanzer had limitations. Its armor, sufficient against small arms fire, could not withstand the more powerful artillery shells or the emerging anti-armor ammunition. Moreover, its mobility, while advanced for the time, was still limited by the technology of the era, reliant on horses or early internal combustion engines for movement.

As warfare evolved, particularly with the advent of World War I, the tactical role of the Fahrpanzer became increasingly marginalized. The development of more mobile and more heavily armed combat vehicles, like tanks and self-propelled guns, rendered the Fahrpanzer obsolete. The static nature of trench warfare, followed by the rapid maneuvers of mechanized warfare, demanded more versatile and robust systems.

Fahrpanzer, Legacy and Survivors

The Fahrpanzer’s legacy lies in its role as a stepping stone in the evolution of armored warfare. While it might not have had a significant impact on the battlefields, it represented an important transitional technology, bridging the gap between traditional artillery and the fully armored, self-propelled artillery that would dominate modern battlefields.

The Fahrpanzer showcased in the Army Museum in Brussels has often been referenced as the sole surviving specimen; nevertheless, images of restored Fahrpanzers have surfaced from various locations including Bulgaria, Greece, Switzerland, France, and South America.

Additionally, an array of Fahrpanzers is exhibited in the Polish Army Museum and the Museum of Polish Military Technology, both situated in Warsaw. Furthermore, there is at least one Fahrpanzer on display in Viña del Mar, situated on the beach close to Valparaiso, Chile, within the Naval Gun Museum.

Pierced Steel Planking (PSP), also known as Marston Mat, is a versatile surfacing innovation that played a pivotal role in military operations since WWII. Made from stamped sheets of steel, it is a simple as it gets, but these planks can be used for just about anything.

It was originally made as a quick way of surfacing roads and runways for vehicles and aircraft, but PSP quickly became a duct tape-type tool that could be used to make buildings, roads, fences, doors, slipways, bridges and more.

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Background

PSP was designed to solve a critical problem: how to quickly construct durable and reliable runways, roads, and other necessary infrastructure in the varied and often difficult terrains encountered during military operations.

The development of PSP began in the US before the Second World War, driven by the anticipation of the nation’s involvement in global military conflicts. Traditional construction methods for runways and roads were time-consuming, labor-intensive, and unsuitable for the fast-paced demands of modern warfare.

Aircraft typically require paved, grass or gravel runways. The latter two are unsuitable for heavy aircraft, and the former requires extensive construction work, time and materials to prepare. Therefore an alternative was needed for operating in areas that lacked prepared runways.

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Engineers and military planners sought a solution that could be rapidly deployed, was lightweight enough to be easily transported, yet sturdy enough to support heavy military aircraft and vehicles. A few different approaches were taken, including 2×4 wooden planks placed on the ground, but they were not successful.

PSP’s design, on the other hand ingeniously addressed the requirements. Made from steel sheets with a series of punched holes (hence the name), the planks could be easily laid down and interlocked edge-to-edge, creating a continuous, stable surface.

The interlocking mechanism was simple yet effective, with hooks running along the edges that slotted into each other, ensuring that the planks could be laid quickly and without the need for specialized tools. Each plank was coated with a corrosion-resistant material, making it durable in a wide range of environmental conditions, from the deserts of North Africa to Pacific islands.

The distinctive holes were added to reduce weight, increase strength and allow water to escape. It was not the first of its kind; other nations had produced similar solutions, but the US’ matting became the Allies’ standard.

As only the sides had the locking hooks, PSP was usually laid in a staggered arrangement, to ensure all planks were connected securely.

The strategic implications of PSP were profound. By enabling the rapid construction of airstrips and roads, PSP significantly expanded the tactical and strategic options available to Allied commanders during conflicts.

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It allowed for the quick establishment of forward operating bases, enhanced the mobility of ground forces, and significantly increased the reach and effectiveness of air support. Airbases could be set up in short order as the front lines shifted forward, contributing to the Allies’s overwhelming air superiority achieved during the Second World War.

PSP Usage

PSP provided a quick and reliable solution for constructing runways on varying terrains, whether it be the sandy beaches of Normandy, the jungles of the Pacific islands, or the frozen landscapes of the Arctic. The speed at which PSP runways could be laid down allowed for the swift establishment of air bases, significantly shortening the time required to bring air power to bear against enemy forces.

This capability was instrumental in supporting airborne operations, cargo transport missions, and fighter and bomber operations, directly impacting the strategic balance of the war.

Beyond airstrips, PSP was extensively used for the rapid construction of roads and the repair of existing infrastructure damaged by combat operations. In the fast-moving fronts of both Europe and the Pacific, the ability to quickly move troops, equipment, and supplies was vital.

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PSP roads facilitated the mobility of armored vehicles, trucks, and artillery, ensuring that ground forces could advance or redeploy with minimal delay.

Moreover, in the aftermath of battles, PSP was often used to repair or reinforce damaged roads and bridges, restoring critical supply lines and communication routes. The simple hook design on the plank edges made assembly a fast and relatively easy undertaking, and minor replacement or repairs usually ended up requiring only two men to accomplish.

And, when larger repairs were needed, connected planks could actually be rolled up and removed or placed where required.

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PSP’s applications were not limited to runways and roads. Its ease of handling and assembly made it suitable for a variety of other military engineering tasks, including the construction of parking areas for vehicles and aircraft, the establishment of temporary buildings, and even the reinforcement of field fortifications.

It wasn’t always the best solution in all scenarios though. For example, it was found to be quite poor on beaches, where waves would lift and dislodge the planks and cover them with sand.

PSP remained in extensive use after the Second World War, seeing major use again in the Korean War. Incredibly, enough PSP had been manufactured by the end of the Second World War to construct nearly one thousand 46 m x 1.5 km (150 ft X 5,000 ft) runways.

However after those wars, the need for urgent, short notice and rapidly deployable airfields were reduced. Thus, the need for PSP also reduced.

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Despite that, due to the huge quantities of PSP that was made, it can often be found still in use today in civilian applications. Typically this is in areas that were once near large military installations or activities, such as on Pacific Islands or near old airbases in Europe. They make handy fences or barriers.

PSP Alternatives

A few other alternatives were in use during the Second World War alongside PSP.

Hessian matting was a Canadian design. Also known as prefabricated hessian surfacing, it is made from hessian cloth (similar to burlap) soaked with bitumen. It was primarily utilized as a waterproof covering for runway surfaces, enabling engineers to quickly create a usable runway.

However, the material’s main drawbacks included the need for regular maintenance, especially in areas of aircraft braking and turning, along with a relatively short lifespan. Additionally, installation was not feasible on wet surfaces.

Square mesh track (SMT) was a development by Britain to serve as a quick solution for runway surfacing during the European invasion, suitable only for light to medium weight aircraft. Throughout the invasion, engineers successfully constructed nine airfields using SMT.

While its lightweight and portability were praised, SMT was not very strong when under continued heavy use.

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In the later stages of the war, square mesh track, hessian matting and pierced steel planking were used together to create a more robust runway surface. This technique significantly enhanced durability, though its labor-intensive nature meant it was primarily used in locations less vulnerable to enemy air assaults.

Replacement

As mentioned, PSP was not the best solution in all circumstances, so when the urgency of war decreased, newer methods of paving runways were investigated. Any new type had to accommodate newer technologies, such as modern jet aircraft that needed a much smoother surface.

The direct replacement for PSP is AM-2, an aluminium mat without holes, that is reinforced with a honeycomb structure on the inside. It is very strong and smooth, yet very lightweight.

It provides a smooth runway for fighters, and the strength to handle cargo aircraft or bombers.

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AM-2 was introduced into the Air Force’s inventory in 1965, and is primarily utilized for the rapid construction of runways, parking aprons, and taxiways. It saw extensive use in the Vietnam War, and remains in service today.

The Schienenwolf, or “Rail Wolf,” also known as a Schwellenpflug or “Sleeper Plough,” was a German rail vehicle designed for devastating rail tracks, featuring a robust, hook-shaped plow.

Krupp factory produced these railroad plows in 1942. They mounted a colossal hook on a platform, which, driven by two locomotives at speeds of 7-10 km/h, would slide under the sleepers, wrenching the rails out of place, shattering the track’s center, and fracturing the sleepers.

Activating this track destroyer took merely 6-8 minutes, managed by a crew of 10. It could obliterate railway tracks, completely breaking 100% of the sleepers, 70-93% of the rails, and disrupting up to 30% of the track bonds.

Deployed in the Nazis’ scorched earth strategy during the Third Reich’s downfall, the Schienenwolf also ripped up bridges and signaling equipment, rendering the severely damaged rail routes into Germany unusable.

With the Soviet Union’s rail network being a different gauge and the Germans operating significantly heavier trains, the Nazi Germany had to reconstruct or alter the railway lines during their invasion. Some tracks were adjusted to standard gauge by shifting the rails.

The Germans swapped the Soviet wooden sleepers with metal ones, indicating the tracks being destroyed were likely Soviet (albeit modified), as depicted in photographs showing wooden sleepers. The heavier German trains necessitated the more robust steel sleepers for support.

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The Pak 38 (L/60) (5 cm Panzerabwehrkanone 38 (L/60)) was a 50 mm caliber German anti-tank gun, developed by Rheinmetall-Borsig AG in 1938.

It succeeded the 3.7 cm Pak 36 and was later superseded by the 7.5 cm Pak 40. Its distinctive curved gun-shield set it apart from the typical WWII anti-tank guns, which usually featured either a single flat or a combination of two angled and one flat gun-shield plates, designed for manufacturing simplicity.

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Spanish Civil War

During its testing in the Spanish Civil War, the 37mm PaK 35/36 anti-tank gun was effective, but German officials recognized its limitations against the emerging heavier armored tanks. In 1935, Rheinmetall in Germany initiated the development of a 50mm (2-inch; 5-cm) caliber variant, designated PaK 37.

Dissatisfied with the original low-velocity performance, the German authorities had Rheinmetall enhance the design by incorporating a longer L/60 barrel, leading to the development of the PaK 38. The German Army approved this model for production, which started in 1939, and the units were deployed with troops in 1940, missing the early Western Front campaigns.

The PaK 38 was integrated into anti-tank platoons and first saw combat during the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, known as “Operation Barbarossa.”

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During the German invasion of Soviet territories, the PaK 38 crews received a new type of ammunition, the Panzergranate 40 APCR, or “AP40”, which was inspired by captured Czech and Polish designs and reintroduced for use by the German Army. The AP40 featured a dense tungsten core that enhanced its penetration ability, especially effective against the Soviet KV-1 heavy tank.

When the T-34/76 medium tanks appeared on the Eastern Front, the PaK 38 armed with the AP40 rounds was the only weapon capable of breaching their thick armor. However, limited availability of the PaK 38 restricted its impact, prompting the Germans to supplement their defenses with captured French 75mm guns.

T-34 Challenged the PaK 38

Although the emergence of the T-34/76 challenged the PaK 38, making it somewhat obsolete, the gun continued to serve until the war’s end in 1945, even after being superseded by larger-caliber anti-tank guns. The PaK 38 boasted a maximum range of nearly 3,000 yards, a caliber of 50x419mm R, and measured 10 feet, 5.5 inches in length, with a barrel length of 7 feet, 9.7 inches.

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It featured a baffled muzzle brake to mitigate recoil, and its carriage doubled as a stabilizing platform during firing. The complete system weighed 2,341 pounds for transport and 1,000 pounds in firing position, offering a 65-degree traverse and an elevation range from -8 degrees to +27 degrees.

Muzzle velocities varied from 3,870 feet per second for armor-piercing rounds to 1,805 feet per second for high-explosive rounds. It operated on a semi-automatic action with a manually operated feed system, allowing a firing rate of about 13 rounds per minute, and was equipped with Z.F. 3×8 sights.

Five crew members operated the PaK 38, taking cover behind a sloped, curved armor plate comprising two sections spaced about 1 inch apart, each 0.15 inches thick. This armor offered frontal protection, while additional cover had to be sought from natural or man-made defenses like earthworks or sandbag barriers.

The gun featured steel, rubber-tired wheels for high-speed towing and dolly wheels on the trail leg spades for extra maneuverability, although these were sometimes detached. Positioned on a tubular, light alloy split-trail carriage, the weapon locked into place for firing, ensuring stability through its torsion bar suspension.

Panzerjager Carriage

Easily towable by a variety of vehicles, the PaK 38’s design minimized its frontal target profile, contributing to its battlefield efficacy. The gun’s success led to adaptations for aircraft, including a version with an automatic feed mechanism for the jet-powered Messerschmitt Me 262 “Schwalbe,” aiming to counter enemy bombers.

Additionally, there were proposals to adapt this aircraft-based cannon for ground anti-aircraft defenses. The PaK 38 was also modified for tank armaments and shore defenses along the “Atlantic Wall” and was mounted on Panzerjager carriages to create improvised self-propelled guns (SPGs) for infantry support, with so many produced that the British repurposed captured units as a contingency.

As mentioned, by the start of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the Pak 38 emerged as one of the limited armaments effective against the T-34 medium tank’s 45 mm (1.8 in) sloped armor at close distances. It was loaded with Panzergranate 40 APCR rounds, which had a hard tungsten carbide core, aiming to breach the thicker armor of the KV-1 tank.

Despite being superseded by more potent weapons, the Pak 38 continued to serve the Wehrmacht throughout the war, proving its enduring utility.The carriage of the Pak 38 was adapted for other guns as well, including the 7.5 cm Pak 97/38 and the 7.5 cm Pak 50.

In March 1943, Romania procured 110 Pak 38 units. These guns served in the Romanian Armed Forces until they were phased out in 1954, replaced by the 57 mm anti-tank gun M1943 (ZiS-2).

The PaK 38 was adapted as the primary armament for tanks, several of which were later repurposed as coastal fortifications along the “Atlantic Wall.”

Additionally, the PaK 38 was mounted on the back of Panzerjager tracked vehicles, transforming them into makeshift self-propelled guns (SPGs) for infantry support. The production of these systems was so extensive that the British managed to capture a significant number, retaining them for potential emergency use. By war’s end, around 9,500 PaK 38 units had been produced, many remaining in service until the conflict’s conclusion.

The Lanchester 6×4 armored car, a British military vehicle featuring a 6×4 drivetrain, was manufactured in small quantities during the late 1920s and early 1930s. As a robust and heavier evolution of the preceding Lanchester 4×2 armored car, it continued to serve with Territorial and colonial forces into the early 1940s, participating notably in the Battle of Malaya.

The Lanchester Motor Company Limited, a renowned British car manufacturer, was operational from 1899 to 1955. Despite still being a registered entity with annual account filings, the Lanchester brand has not been active in trading since its last recorded activity, and as of 2014, it is officially classified as “non-trading.”

Initially based at Armourer Mills, Montgomery Street, Sparkbrook, Birmingham, the company relocated in early 1931 to Sandy Lane, Coventry, England.

The end of 1930 saw Lanchester being acquired by the BSA Group, which subsequently integrated Lanchester’s manufacturing processes with Daimler at Daimler’s facilities in Coventry. This acquisition eventually led Lanchester to become a part of Jaguar Cars in 1960, aligning it with Daimler under the same corporate umbrella.

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In 1990, the Ford Motor Company took ownership of Jaguar Cars, incorporating Lanchester into its portfolio, and maintained control until 2008. During this period, Land Rover joined Jaguar under Ford’s stewardship in 2000.

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Ford later sold Jaguar and Land Rover to Tata Motors in 2008, which then established Jaguar Land Rover as a subsidiary to oversee both brands. By 2013, Jaguar Cars merged with Land Rover, culminating in the formation of Jaguar Land Rover Limited, under which the Lanchester car brand rights now reside, overseen by the globally operating British car manufacturer, Jaguar Land Rover.

Background

The Lanchester Motor Company Limited, known for its production of a four-wheeled armored car used during World War I, faced competition primarily from a Rolls-Royce model in British Army service.

In the years between the wars, Lanchester shifted focus to a new six-wheeled design, prompted by the British Army’s request. The efficacy of armored cars in the First World War was undeniable, leading to continued interest and development in the post-war era as manufacturers worldwide endeavored to market their models to military forces.

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These vehicles were essential for reconnaissance, light fire support, and maintaining order in colonial regions. The development during this interwar period culminated in the Lanchester 6×4 Armored Car, which was produced in four different marks, totaling 39 vehicles.

Recognizing the necessity for a modernized six-wheeled armored car with superior off-road capabilities and four-wheel drive compared to existing wartime models, the British Army allocated funds for Lanchester to engineer a novel design in 1927. This initiative resulted in the creation of two prototype vehicles, the D1E1 and D1E2 (the latter equipped with dual driver positions for rapid retreats) in the subsequent year.

Testing highlighted the prototypes’ structural weaknesses and subpar off-road capabilities, leading to the development of the Mk 1 production version. In July 1928, the army commissioned eighteen Mk 1 units, alongside four Mk 1A variants designed as Command Vehicles (CVs). These CVs were equipped with enhanced communications systems and omitted the hull-mounted .303 machine gun, featuring a turret armed with a pair of machine guns instead.

Development

The interwar period was a time of significant innovation in military tactics and technology, influenced heavily by the experiences of World War I. Armored cars, which had proven their worth during the Great War, were seen as essential tools for reconnaissance, patrol, and even combat roles, leading to increased interest and development in this field.

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The Lanchester Motor Company, leveraging its experience in automobile manufacturing, ventured into the development of an armored car that would meet the British military’s evolving needs. The design of the Lanchester 6×4 was driven by the demand for a vehicle that could offer both offensive capabilities and defensive protection.

The vehicle was to serve primarily in reconnaissance roles but needed to be capable of engaging enemy targets and withstanding counterattacks. This required a balance between agility, armament, and armor—factors that were meticulously considered in the Lanchester’s design.

Features

The vehicle’s 6×4 configuration, with six wheels and the rear four providing traction, was a distinctive feature aimed at enhancing its mobility over different terrains, an essential attribute for a reconnaissance vehicle. This chassis design improved the vehicle’s overall stability and weight distribution, crucial for accommodating the heavy armor plating and armaments.

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The Lanchester was armored sufficiently to protect against small arms fire and shell splinters, typical threats encountered by reconnaissance units. The choice of armor thickness and material was a compromise between providing adequate protection and maintaining manageable weight levels to preserve the vehicle’s speed and maneuverability.

Central to its offensive capability was its main armament, typically a Vickers machine gun, mounted in a fully rotating turret. This enabled the crew to engage targets in all directions, an invaluable feature in the fast-moving, fluid scenarios for which the vehicle was designed. Additional machine guns were often mounted at the front and rear, maximizing the vehicle’s firepower and enabling it to respond to threats from multiple angles.

Powering the Lanchester 6×4 was an engine robust enough to handle the significant weight of the armored body and provide a respectable power-to-weight ratio. The placement of the engine, drivetrain components, and the design of the suspension system were all critical in ensuring that the vehicle could navigate challenging terrains while maintaining speed and reliability.

Operational Efficiency

The design incorporated features to enhance the crew’s operational efficiency, including ergonomically placed controls, visibility ports, and access hatches. The vehicle’s internal layout was planned to ensure quick and easy access to equipment, ammunition, and essential maintenance points, reducing downtime and enabling rapid response to combat requirements.

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In sum, the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car’s development and design were symbolic of a period characterized by rapid technological advances in military vehicle engineering. Its creation was a response to the strategic shift towards mechanized warfare, where speed, firepower, and protection were paramount.

The Lanchester’s innovative features, especially its 6×4 configuration, armament capabilities, and armor design, demonstrated a significant evolution in armored car design and set a precedent for future developments in the field.

Lanchester 6×4 Lessons from WW1

The production and service of the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car represent a significant phase in its operational history, illustrating the challenges and successes encountered in bringing a military vehicle from the design stage to active duty.

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The Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car went into production in the late 1920s. It became a period of fast technological advancements influenced by the lessons learned during WW1, the need for mechanised warfare.

The production was undertaken by the Lanchester Motor Company, a firm already renowned for its engineering excellence and high-quality automobile manufacturing. This transition from civilian to military production was seamless due to Lanchester’s robust manufacturing capabilities and technological expertise.

Despite the innovative design and potential of the Lanchester 6×4, the number of units produced was relatively limited. The exact production figures are somewhat elusive, but it is understood that the total count did not exceed a few hundred units.

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This limited production can be attributed to several factors, including the rapid pace of technological obsolescence during this era, the specific strategic requirements of the British military, and the emergence of more advanced armored car designs.

Lanchester 6×4 in Military Service

Upon completion, the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Cars were primarily deployed with the British Army, where they were intended for use in reconnaissance roles, capitalizing on their mobility and firepower. The vehicles were stationed in various British colonies and territories, where they patrolled borders, secured strategic sites, and engaged in occasional skirmishes, providing valuable intelligence and maintaining British presence.

The Lanchester 6x4s were designed to operate in diverse and challenging environments, from the deserts of the Middle East to the jungles of Southeast Asia. Their deployment in such varied terrains tested the vehicles’ design limits, providing critical data that influenced future military vehicle development.

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In January 1929, the 11th Hussars regiment began receiving its first Lanchesters, along with Rolls-Royce armored cars previously used by the Navy and Air Force, marking its transition from horse-mounted cavalry to mechanization. However, due to a slow delivery rate, the unit wasn’t fully outfitted until 1934. In November, the regiment moved to Egypt, substituting the 12th Royal Lancers who then returned to Britain and inherited the vehicles.

During January and February 1935, a temporary D squadron of the 12th Lancers, equipped with eight armored cars, operated as a peacekeeping force in the Saar region. On December 31, B and C squadrons were dispatched again to Egypt with 29 armored cars, reacting to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia and reinforcing the garrisons in Libya for patrol duties along the western frontier. By the end of 1936, these squadrons had returned to Britain, where the regiment transitioned to using Morris Light Reconnaissance Cars.

Singapore Volunteer Corps

By 1939, the bulk of the Lanchesters, including 13 Mk I, 1 Mk IA, 5 Mk II, and 3 Mk IIA models, were deployed to the Far East. They were assigned to various units including the Selangor and Perak battalions of the Federated Malay States Volunteer Force, the Singapore Volunteer Corps, Straits Settlements Volunteer Force, and the 2nd battalion of the Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders in Malay. Some of these units participated in the Malayan Campaign from December 1941 to February 15, 1942, against the Japanese forces.

The Territorial Army received 10 Lanchesters, specifically the 23rd London Armoured Car Company and the 1st Derbyshire Yeomanry. In 1940, one vehicle was modified to serve as protected transportation for Cabinet ministers and VIPs. In 1941, two Lanchesters were allocated to the 1st Belgian armoured car squadron.

Lanchester 6×4 End of Service

By the outbreak of World War II, the Lanchester 6×4 had largely been surpassed by more modern and capable armored car designs. As mentioned above, some units remained in service, primarily in secondary roles or with reserve units. The onset of the war accelerated the retirement of the remaining Lanchester 6x4s, as military forces worldwide rapidly upgraded their armored vehicle fleets in response to the demands of global conflict.

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The Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Cars were eventually phased out, replaced by newer models that incorporated lessons learned from the operational deployment of these early armored vehicles. Despite their retirement, the Lanchester 6x4s left a lasting impact, contributing to the evolution of armored reconnaissance vehicles and influencing future designs.

The production and service life of the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car encapsulate a transitional period in military vehicle history, bridging the gap between World War I-era designs and the more advanced armored cars of World War II.

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While they may not have been produced in large numbers or achieved fame on the battlefield, their contribution to military vehicle development and their service in various global settings. Today, the sole surviving Lanchester, a Mk II model, is exhibited at the Tank Museum, Bovington.

Legacy of the Lanchester 6×4

The legacy of the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car is marked by its contribution to the evolution of armored warfare tactics and vehicle design. While it may not have been the most famous or widely used armored car of its time, it represented a significant step forward in terms of mobility, firepower, and protection in a period when such vehicles were rapidly evolving.

Furthermore, the Lanchester 6×4’s design influenced subsequent armored car models, both in Britain and abroad, setting design trends that would be seen in later vehicles. Its use in various territories around the world also underscores the global reach of British military designs during the interwar period and the early years of World War II.

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The Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car marked the transition from trench warfare to more mobile, mechanized conflicts and the British military’s efforts to maintain its global presence through advanced technology. If we look at the British Saladin Armoured Car FV 601, you can still see the influence of the Lanchester 6×4 Armoured Car, now that’s not a bad legacy.

Since ancient times, homing pigeons have been utilized for message delivery. The exact nature of their homing instinct remains somewhat mysterious.

It’s speculated that magnetoreception, a biological ability to sense the magnetic field for orientation, plays a role, alongside the pigeon’s capacity to recognize landmarks. Sharp vision and exceptional memory are also believed to contribute, though pigeons are hindered by darkness or poor visibility conditions like fog.

In wartime, messenger pigeons present several benefits. They’re portable, consume minimal food, and can cover distances swiftly. Unlike military dogs, they stay focused on their mission and, if intercepted, reveal no information about their point of origin or intended destination. Averaging speeds of about 90 kilometers per hour across moderate spans, they outpace runners, cyclists, or horseback riders.

Contents

Background

Ancient Romans employed pigeons in chariot races to communicate the results to the owners. Genghis Khan set up pigeon relay stations across Asia and much of Eastern Europe, while Charlemagne reserved pigeon-breeding exclusively for the nobility. The Rothschild family’s wealth was reportedly significantly boosted by a pigeon that delivered swift news of the British win at Waterloo. However, it was during the 1870 Siege of Paris that the carrier pigeon truly distinguished itself.

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As the Prussians encircled Paris, the initial strategy of sending dispatches via hollow metal balls along the Seine river turned out to be unreliable. But just six days after the siege commenced on September 19, a balloon named La Ville de Florence released three pigeons at 11 a.m., and by 5 p.m. the same day, they had successfully completed their mission and returned.

Prussian Gunfire

By the time an armistice was declared at the end of January, 409 pigeons had been deployed, with 73 managing to return safely, enduring harsh conditions, Prussian gunfire, and falcons trained for their interception, as detailed by the museum exhibit.

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In appreciation, the nation tasked Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, famed for the Statue of Liberty, with creating a bronze monument commemorating the balloonists and pigeons involved in the Siege. Unveiled in 1905 at the Place des Ternes in Paris, this monument was unfortunately melted down during World War II.

By the onset of World War I, French pigeon lofts were fully operational, as were those of other nations involved in the conflict. The Germans utilized pigeons equipped with cameras, an innovative method superseded only with the advent of aerial reconnaissance aircraft. By the war’s conclusion, France had enlisted the service of 30,000 pigeons, imposing severe penalties, even death, for hindering their missions.

Homing Pigeons and the Dickin Medal

Homing pigeons have been pivotal in warfare, valued for their ability to reliably return home, their swiftness, and their high-flying capabilities, making them ideal for delivering military messages. Specifically, the Racing Homer breed was instrumental during both World Wars, with 32 of these pigeons being honored with the prestigious Dickin Medal.

Additionally, accolades like the Croix de Guerre were bestowed upon pigeons such as Cher Ami, while the Dickin Medal was also awarded to G.I. Joe and Paddy, recognizing their extraordinary contributions to saving lives during these conflicts.

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In the world wars, these carrier pigeons were tasked with ferrying messages back to their home coops positioned behind the battle lines. Upon their return, the coop’s integrated wires would trigger an alert system, notifying Signal Corps soldiers that a message had arrived. These soldiers would then retrieve the message from the pigeon’s canister and ensure its prompt delivery through telegraph, field phone, or direct messenger.

Serving as a carrier pigeon was fraught with peril, as enemy combatants frequently attempted to shoot the birds down, aware of their role in transmitting critical intelligence. Despite these dangers, some pigeons achieved legendary status among the troops they served. For instance, a pigeon named Spike completed 52 missions unscathed.

Homing Pigeons at Sea

Pigeons found successful applications on both aircraft and ships, yet they were predominantly utilized by the British Expeditionary Force for conveying messages from front-line trenches or advancing units, overseen by the Directorate of Army Signals.

These birds homed to both stationary and mobile lofts, returning with crucial communiqués. Fixed lofts were set up in various structures like outbuildings or rooftops, while in the field, tailored wooden sheds were constructed.

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Mobile lofts, either horse-drawn or motorized, were deployed where fixed ones were impractical. These could be relocated as needed once pigeons had acclimatized to their new base. The pigeons underwent meticulous training and care, being fed only once daily shortly before sunset, and withheld food for at least 24 hours post-departure from the loft. Release times were cautiously chosen to ensure optimal navigational conditions, avoiding dusk, dawn, or foggy weather.

To ensure message redundancy, communiqués were dispatched with two birds released a minute apart, avoiding the simultaneous release of male and female pigeons. In cases of highly confidential messages, encryption was employed, mindful that pigeons might fall into enemy hands. Both the message’s destination and the origin were encoded to maintain secrecy and security.

Homing Pigeons in WW1

During World War I, homing pigeons played a crucial role in communications. In the pivotal 1914 First Battle of the Marne, the French military deployed 72 pigeon lofts alongside their advancing troops. Similarly, the US Army Signal Corps employed 600 pigeons in France for message delivery tasks.

One notable pigeon, a Blue Check cock named Cher Ami, was decorated with the French “Croix de Guerre with Palm” for his valiant efforts in transmitting 12 vital messages throughout the Battle of Verdun.

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In his final mission in October 1918, despite being injured by gunfire, he succeeded in delivering a message that was instrumental in saving the lives of 194 soldiers from the 77th Infantry Division’s “Lost Battalion”. The life-saving note was discovered in a capsule attached to what remained of his leg.

54,000 War Homing Pigeons

The United States Army Pigeon Service, also known as the Signal Pigeon Corps, was a dedicated division of the U.S. Army operational in both World Wars. Their primary role was to oversee the training and deployment of homing pigeons for communications and reconnaissance tasks.

In World War II, this unit expanded to include 3,150 soldiers and a remarkable roster of 54,000 war pigeons. These pigeons were valued for their stealthy, reliable means of sending messages, with over 90% of communications dispatched by them successfully received.

The pivotal facility for the U.S. Army’s pigeon operations, the Pigeon Breeding and Training Center, was stationed at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, from 1917 to 1943 and then from 1946 to 1957. A relocation occurred from October 1943 to June 1946 when the center moved to Camp Crowder.

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The practice of employing pigeons for military communication ceased in 1957. Following their decommission, fifteen pigeons distinguished for their service were donated to zoos, while approximately a thousand others were sold off to private individuals.

Stockpile of 1,508 Birds

The United States Navy, operating in France, managed 12 pigeon stations with a stockpile of 1,508 birds by the war’s conclusion. These pigeons were often brought aboard aircraft to swiftly convey messages back to these bases, participating in a total of 10,995 wartime aircraft patrols.

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During these missions, 829 pigeons were released from aircraft; the crew had to carefully launch the birds either upwards or downwards, considering the aircraft’s design, to avoid the propellers and prevent the birds from being swept into the wings or struts. Out of these releases, only 11 pigeons went missing, while the rest succeeded in delivering their 219 messages effectively.

Pigeons were deemed a crucial component of naval aviation communications, evidenced by the inclusion of a pigeon house on the stern of the USS Langley, the first United States aircraft carrier, when it was commissioned on March 20, 1922. These pigeons underwent training at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard during the period Langley was being refitted.

While individual pigeons reliably returned to the ship when released in small numbers for exercise, an incident occurred where the entire flock was released while the Langley was anchored off Tangier Island. Instead of returning, the pigeons headed south and settled in the cranes at the Norfolk shipyard. Following this event, the pigeons were not taken to sea again.

President Wilson the Legend of Homing Pigeons

Originating from France, President Wilson, a homing pigeon, was initially designated to the U.S. Army’s nascent Tank Corps. His first combat experience involved carrying messages for the 326th and 327th Tank Battalions, which were under the command of Colonel George S. Patton during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel.

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Stationed with the squad at the forefront of the advance, he was dispatched from a tank’s turret to relay the positions of enemy machine gun placements, enabling artillery strikes ahead of the infantry’s progression.

Subsequent to this engagement, President Wilson was attached to an infantry squad from the 78th Division, engaged in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive near Grandpré, France. On the morning of October 5, 1918, his unit was embroiled in a fierce battle. Released to summon artillery support, President Wilson embarked on his journey back to his loft at Rampont, located forty kilometers away.

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His flight drew the hostile attention of German troops, who unleashed a dense barrage of bullets in his direction. Nevertheless, he succeeded in conveying the critical message within twenty-five minutes, albeit arriving with severe injuries; he had lost his left leg, and sustained a significant wound to his chest.

Miraculously surviving these injuries, President Wilson was subsequently taken to the U.S. Army Signal Corps Breeding and Training Center for recovery. He lived out his days there, passing away in 1929, leaving behind a legacy of bravery and an indelible mark on military avian service.

USA Signal Pigeon Corps

At the onset of World War II, the U.S. Army’s Signal Pigeon Corps was operational with around 54,000 pigeons. The increasing reliance on these pigeons necessitated the establishment of a dedicated unit within the U.S. Army Veterinary Service.

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This unit was tasked with ensuring pigeon health, maintaining their physical performance, and preventing the spread of pigeon-related diseases that could affect other animals and humans.

The unit achieved its goals by providing expert services and guidance in managing the pigeons’ care, nutrition, accommodation, and transportation. It also carried out lab diagnostics and research on pigeon ailments, implemented disease control measures through quarantine, conducted health inspections, and offered expertise in training pigeon handlers.

Army Veterinary Service

Despite deploying 36,000 pigeons abroad, the implementation of these veterinary services varied across different theaters and overseas locations, given the novelty of integrating military veterinary practices for pigeon services at the time.

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Among the various health-related concerns addressed by the Army Veterinary Service, the supply and quality of feed, along with the pigeons’ housing, stood out. Optimal nutrition and feeding practices were crucial for the pigeons’ health and directly influenced their homing capabilities.

The Signal Corps was responsible for sourcing the feed, which often arrived in overseas locations in subpar condition—compromised by improper handling, pest infestation, or exposure to moisture, leading to spoilage or contamination.

Adequate shelter was another significant issue, especially for units stationed abroad. Standardized loft designs from the U.S. were sometimes modified to adapt to the diverse and changing weather conditions, particularly in the Central Pacific Area, leading to the construction of open-front lofts.

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Key considerations for these accommodations included exposure to sunlight, ensuring dryness, maintaining a draft-free environment, and upholding strict sanitation standards to optimize the health and efficiency of the signal pigeons.

Homing Pigeons

During World War II, the United Kingdom utilized approximately 250,000 homing pigeons for various critical tasks, including facilitating communication with operatives such as the Belgian spy Jozef Raskin who were stationed behind enemy lines.

Notably, 32 of these pigeons were honored with the Dickin Medal, the most prestigious award for animal bravery, recognizing distinguished pigeons like the United States Army Pigeon Service’s G.I. Joe and the Irish pigeon named Paddy.

Throughout the war, the UK’s Air Ministry Pigeon Section was operational, extending a little while post-war. The utilization of pigeons in military operations was overseen by a specialized Pigeon Policy Committee.

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In 1945, the head of this section, Lea Rayner, suggested the innovative yet controversial idea of training pigeons to carry small explosives or biological weapons to specific targets. Despite the potential, this proposal was not pursued by the committee. By 1948, the UK’s military formally acknowledged that pigeons no longer held any utility for their operations.

During wartime, messenger pigeons were allotted a special provision of corn and seeds. However, this allowance was revoked at war’s end, compelling pigeon keepers to use their personal rations of corn and seeds to feed the birds. Despite their diminished role post-war, the UK’s MI5 maintained a vigil over the potential use of pigeons by adversarial forces.

Up until 1950, they supported a program where 100 pigeons were kept by a civilian pigeon fancier, staying prepared for any possible use of pigeons by enemy agents. This cautious stance toward pigeon-based communication persisted long after the war, although the Swiss army didn’t disband its pigeon section until 1996.

William of Orange Market Garden

The British paratroopers, equipped with the same radios they had used two years prior in North Africa, faced unforeseen challenges in Arnhem. While these radios were adequate in the vast, open desert, they proved ineffective in the dense, urban, and forested landscape of Arnhem, resulting in a complete communication blackout.

This failure in communication led to significant operational issues. Army units were isolated, unable to coordinate with each other or report back to General Urquhart’s division headquarters in Oosterbeek.

Moreover, during the crucial initial days of the Battle of Arnhem, General Urquhart found himself cut off, unable to relay the critical situation of his troops to the British army command in Nijmegen or to the higher-ups in London.

High Command in London

The lack of radio transmissions from Arnhem at the battle’s onset alarmed the High Command in London, prompting them to deduce a malfunction with the communication equipment. In response, reconnaissance flights were dispatched, with Spitfires photographing the Arnhem area.

One notable photograph capturing the aftermath of destroyed German armored vehicles near the Rhine Bridge was taken during these missions, hinting to the British High Command that the operation was not proceeding as planned. However, the full extent of the dire situation was not immediately grasped in London.

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The turning point came on Tuesday, September 19, 1944, when London received a critical update through a homing pigeon named William of Orange. This pigeon, along with others, was brought into Arnhem by John Frost’s troops. Encircled by German forces and with radio communications to Oosterbeek severed, Frost resorted to releasing William of Orange to deliver the urgent message, marking a significant moment in the battle’s communication efforts.

John Frost

William of Orange carried a crucial note strapped to his leg, detailing that Frost’s troops were holding the northern ramp of the bridge but were isolated from the main British forces, urgently requiring air support to sustain their defense against German forces.

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Launching his pivotal journey at 10:30 am, William of Orange arrived at his loft in Cheshire, England, by 2:55 pm, covering a remarkable distance of 400 kilometers in just 4 hours and 25 minutes, a feat hailed by Stewart Wardrop of the Royal Racing Pigeon Association as an exceptional record.

Wardrop, in his statement to the Daily Mail, emphasized the pigeon’s extraordinary feat, considering the challenging circumstances of being confined in a cage for days, released amidst enemy gunfire, and navigating 200 kilometers over open sea to England.

Releasing the pigeon was fraught with challenges; amidst enemy fire, a British paratrooper attempted to send him on his way under the Rhine Bridge’s ramp. Initially hesitant, the pigeon lingered nearby until a British soldier’s warning shots prompted him to commence his critical flight to England.

Homing Pigeons Mission Complete

The reception of the message significantly alerted the British High Command to the dire situation in Arnhem. Regrettably, adverse weather conditions thwarted the air support Frost’s troops desperately needed. It’s noteworthy that on September 19, British forces in Oosterbeek finally established a tentative, though unreliable, radio link with the allied headquarters at Groesbeek.

While Frost’s troops released more pigeons, William of Orange stood out for successfully completing the journey back to England, the only one known to have done so.

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For his outstanding service, William of Orange was honored with the Dickin Medal, regarded as the animal equivalent of the Victoria Cross. He became the 21st recipient of this accolade, instituted in 1943 by the compassionate Mrs. M. E. Dickin, founder of the People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals. His awarded medal bore the inscription ‘For Gallantry, We also serve.’

Post-war, William of Orange lived for another decade, having been purchased by a pigeon fancier for 135 British pounds, commemorating a legacy of bravery and steadfast duty.

Homing Pigeons Australia

In 1942, amidst growing concerns over a potential Japanese invasion of Australia, the predominant modes of communication were line and wireless. However, a collaborative meeting between civilian pigeon enthusiasts and senior army signal officers explored pigeons as an alternative communication method.

The successful trial led to the establishment of the Australian Corps of Signals Pigeon Service, predominantly staffed by former civilian pigeon fanciers now in the army. Following a nationwide call, over 13,500 homing pigeons were contributed to the service.

Initially, this service facilitated messages between Australia’s coastal defenses, later extending to Voluntary Defence Corps posts, coast-watching stations, and aircraft-spotting locations. The operation expanded to jungle regions, but the challenging climate in New Guinea affected the pigeons adversely, prompting the setup of local army breeding lofts.

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This strategy aimed to acclimate pigeons to the environment where they would serve. Various locations in New Guinea, including Tarakan, Laubuan, Morotai, Bougainville, and New Britain, hosted pigeon sections.

To ensure comprehensive training, pigeon lofts were integrated with signal schools, infantry training, and water transport training facilities, enabling military personnel to learn pigeon care.

The diet for these pigeons included maple peas, wheat, unpolished rice, canary seed, linseed, Milo, and hulled oats, and they were regularly treated with DDT to fend off feather lice, a prevalent issue in the tropics.

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Pigeons faced formidable flying conditions in New Guinea, with the region’s mountainous terrain, frequent tropical rains, and mists posing significant challenges. Despite these obstacles, messenger pigeons were upheld as a vital and effective communication resource.

Pigeons to Secured Artillery Support

Blue Bar Cock Pigeon No. 139 was honored with the prestigious Dickin Medal for his act of bravery during a hazardous flight through a severe tropical storm near Madang, New Guinea, on July 12, 1945.

Stationed with Detachment 55 Port Craft Company in Madang, this pigeon heroically transported a distress message from a boat in trouble, covering a distance of 40 miles (64 km) in just 50 minutes. The conveyed message was a crucial call for help, detailing the boat’s dire situation, being washed onto the beach at Wadau under heavy seas and quickly filling with sand, necessitating immediate assistance.

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The bird’s timely delivery of the message facilitated the rescue and salvage operation, saving the boat along with its critical cargo of stores, ammunition, and equipment. Prior to this mission, the pigeon had successfully executed 23 operational flights, covering a cumulative distance of 1,004 miles.

The Dickin Medal was awarded to this gallant pigeon in February 1947, with the citation highlighting its remarkable journey from the stranded Army boat 1402 on Wadou Beach back to Madang, facilitating a timely rescue that saved both the vessel and its significant load.

Military Cross

Captain Stuart McDonald’s company also owed their gratitude to homing pigeons for their invaluable service during World War II. On July 2, 1945, while stationed on Bougainville, Captain McDonald’s company was engaged in establishing a base by the Mivo River.

They encountered an unexpected enemy force of around one hundred. Isolated and under continuous fire, with their communication lines severed, the company was in a precarious situation.

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In a critical move, on the third day, they dispatched their two pigeons with a request for artillery support in five hours. The successful message delivery led to “Under favourable conditions a carrier pigeon can cover a distance of 15-200 miles at an average air speed of 30 miles per hour. To get the best out of him he must be conditioned as carefully as a greyhound, and be trained along the line of flight over which it is intended to use him“. For his leadership and the successful use of pigeons to secure artillery support during the Mivo River engagement from July 2 to 5, 1945, Captain McDonald was awarded the Military Cross.

German flak towers, or “Flaktürme,” were monumental concrete fortresses constructed during the Second World War across various cities within Nazi Germany and its occupied territories. These structures served a dual purpose: they were air defense platforms equipped with anti-aircraft artillery to counter Allied bombing raids, and they also functioned as air raid shelters for civilians.

These gigantic buildings were armed to the teeth with some of the most powerful anti-aircraft guns of the war, and were completely self-sufficient, complete with hospitals, food, water, power generators and more.

Some bunker personnel estimated that they could hold off for about a year, even if the surrounding city had been taken! For that reason, they were some of final areas of resistance at the war’s end.

Contents

Background

The Allies, particularly the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), escalated their strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany throughout the war. The goal was twofold: to dismantle the German war machine by targeting industrial and military infrastructures and to erode civilian morale by bombing urban centers.

This relentless aerial onslaught highlighted the urgent need for effective air defense systems to protect vital targets and civilian populations.

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In response to this threat, Adolf Hitler ordered the construction of flak towers. These towers were to serve as formidable anti-aircraft defense installations, capable of repelling enemy bombers and shielding cities from aerial attacks.

The concept was proposed as part of a larger strategy to fortify the Reich against the increasing might of the Allied air forces. Flak towers were envisioned not only as platforms for heavy anti-aircraft guns but also as shelters for civilians.

The design and deployment of flak towers were influenced by the experiences of the Luftwaffe, the German air force, in defending the Reich. Early in the war, the Luftwaffe was primarily offensive, but as the tide turned, it found itself on the defensive, struggling to counter the overwhelming air superiority of the Allies.

The traditional anti-aircraft batteries, dispersed to defend cities, industrial and military areas, were proving insufficient to stop or significantly deter the bombing raids. The flak towers, with their high-density anti-aircraft guns and radar-guided fire control systems were meant to throw up a much greater volume of fire over particularly important areas.

Moreover, the flak towers were to serve a secondary, equally critical role as bomb shelters for civilians. The psychological impact of the bombing raids on the German population was profound, with widespread fear, anxiety, and the disruption of daily life becoming commonplace.

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By providing refuge to thousands of civilians during air raids, the flak towers aimed to bolster civilian morale, offering a place of safety during attacks. This was an attempt by Germany attempt to maintain public support and demonstrate its commitment to the protection of its people, even as the war turned increasingly against it.

Design and Construction

Towers were constructed in Berlin, Hamburg, and Vienna, with each city’s installations tailored to its specific defensive needs and urban layout. They were built to withstand direct hits from the heaviest bombs of the era, all the while providing a 360 degree field of fire.

Constructed out of reinforced concrete, their walls and ceilings could be up to 5 meters thick, a feature that made them virtually impervious to the bombs of the time. This incredible thickness of the concrete used ensured that the structures could absorb and withstand the shock of aerial bombings without compromising their integrity.

The design also included internal compartments and corridors that were shock-resistant, protecting both the military personnel operating the anti-aircraft guns and the civilians seeking shelter within.

Each complex typically consisted of G-towers (Gefechtsturm) for combat operations and a smaller L-tower (Leitturm) that served as a command and observation post that guided the G-tower’s fire. The G-towers were armed with a variety of anti-aircraft (AA) guns, ranging from 2 cm cannons to 12.8 cm guns capable of reaching high-altitude bombers.

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The 12.8 cm FlaK 40 guns were some of the most powerful AA guns of the war. They were very large pieces, making them unsuitable for mobile ground operations, but were perfect in static positions on top of flak towers.

These guns were capable of throwing a 60 lb projectile up to a maximum altitude of 48,000 ft! Some were mounted in twin mounts, known as 12.8 cm Flakzwilling 40/2s. These could fire up to 20 rounds a minute, although they were available in much lower numbers and only used some flak towers.

These towers also housed radar installations and searchlights to track and target incoming aircraft, making them highly effective defensive positions.

The construction of the flak towers began in 1940 and was an enormous logistical challenge, requiring significant resources and labor in a time of war. The speed at which they were built is remarkable, with some towers being completed in as little as six months.

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This rapid construction was achieved through round-the-clock work shifts and the use of prefabricated materials wherever possible. To ensure deliveries of raw materials were made, civilian rail networks were commandeered where needed.

The strategic placement of flak towers within cities was another critical aspect of their design. They were situated to maximize coverage against aerial attacks, with their fields of fire overlapping to create a dense anti-aircraft defense network. This placement also considered the towers’ role as shelters, ensuring that civilians could access them quickly during air raids.

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Inside, provisions were made to accept thousands of civilians if required. The towers were completely self-sufficient, with their own power generation, medical facilities, food, water and ammunition. They were even made gas proof.

Locations

Flak towers were erected in Berlin, Hamburg, and Vienna. Each city had multiple flak tower complexes, strategically positioned to provide overlapping fields of fire and maximize coverage against incoming bombers.

Berlin, the Reich’s capital and heart of Nazi Germany, was naturally a prime target for Allied bombers. To defend the city, three flak tower complexes were constructed: the Zoo Tower in the Tiergarten, the Friedrichshain Tower in the park of the same name, and the Humboldthain Tower in the Humboldthain Park.

The Zoo Tower, in particular, became one of the most famous flak towers of the war, serving as a last bastion of defense during the Battle of Berlin in 1945. This tower was the first built, completed in 1941, after the RAF’s first attack on Berlin. This attack was embarrassing for the Nazi high command, and so the towers in Berlin were not only military installations but also symbols of strength to comfort their population.

Hamburg, one of Germany’s most important port cities, was crucial for the war effort due to its shipbuilding yards and industrial facilities. The city was defended by three flak tower complexes.

They were positioned to protect the industrial heartland and the port facilities, vital for German naval operations and the supply chain. The sheer resilience of these structures was demonstrated here, as they withstood some of the most intense bombings of the war, continuing to operate amidst the firestorm that engulfed the city.

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Flakturm IV in Hamburg is one of the largest of the towers, and one of the largest above-ground bunkers ever built. It held eight 12.8 cm guns, and held up to 25,000 civilians.

Vienna had the most flak towers, with six in total, being constructed later in the war. The city, with its rich cultural heritage and historical significance, was equipped with flak towers to defend against Allied air raids, but they also served a secondary purpose: the preservation of art and cultural treasures.

The towers in Vienna were used to store valuable artworks and artifacts, protecting them from destruction. In the aftermath of the war, the flak towers’ sheer size and the strength of their construction posed significant challenges for demolition, leading many to be repurposed or integrated into the urban landscape.

Flak Tower Effectiveness

These imposing structures were not only a technical response to the Allied bombing campaigns but also a strategic tool aimed at bolstering morale among the German populace. Their presence, however, arguably was more useful as air raid shelters than it was for AA fire.

Of course, the flak towers were formidable anti-aircraft platforms. Their construction allowed for an unprecedented concentration of anti-aircraft artillery in key strategic locations.

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Equipped with heavy flak guns capable of reaching high-altitude targets, these towers significantly increased the defensive capabilities of the cities in which they were located. The strategic positioning of the towers allowed for overlapping fields of fire, creating dense anti-aircraft zones that forced Allied bombers to adjust their tactics.

In some cases, bombers were compelled to fly at higher altitudes to evade the intense flak, which, while reducing the accuracy of their bombing runs, did not entirely negate the threat. Moreover, the towers’ resilience to bombing—owing to their thick reinforced concrete walls—meant they remained operational throughout the war.

In cities that were subjected to frequent and devastating air raids, the towers served as morale boosters. For many civilians, the towers offered refuge during bombings in their vast shelters that could accommodate thousands.

These shelters were not mere spaces of refuge but were also equipped with amenities such as hospitals, schools, and even entertainment facilities.

However, the effectiveness of the flak towers in achieving their intended military and psychological objectives is a subject of historical debate. While they undeniably posed a significant challenge to Allied bombers and contributed to the defense of key urban centers, their impact on the overall course of the war was limited.

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The resources required for their construction—vast amounts of labor, materials, and weaponry—were immense, leading some historians to question whether these resources could have been more effectively allocated to other aspects of the war effort.

Moreover, the strategic bombing campaign, despite being hindered by the towers, ultimately achieved its objective of crippling Germany’s war machinery and infrastructure. The flak towers, for all their might and symbolism, could not prevent the eventual downfall of the Nazi regime.

Post-War

Unfortunately for the cities that hosted them, the end of the war did not simply render these towers obsolete; it left behind a complex problem of what to do with such massive, indestructible fortresses.

Constructed from reinforced concrete with walls up to 3.5 meters thick, these towers were designed to withstand the most severe bombing raids. This made them almost impervious to demolition efforts in the aftermath of the war.

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Some were demolished, like the Zoo Tower in Berlin, but it often took months and proved to be prohibitively expensive and dangerous, leading to the decision to leave most of the structures standing.

As the immediate post-war years gave way to reconstruction and redevelopment, and without any practical way of removing them, some cities found innovative ways to repurpose the flak towers. In Vienna, for example, one of the towers was transformed into the Haus des Meeres, a public aquarium that now serves as a popular attraction, seamlessly integrating a symbol of war into the fabric of civilian life.

In Hamburg, a flak tower has been converted into an energy storage facility, while the tower at Arenbergpark in Vienna has been repurposed into a climbing wall.

Where repurposing has not been feasible, some flak towers have been preserved as historical monuments. The G-Tower at Humboldthain in Berlin, for example, was partially demolished but can be toured today.

But the most dramatic transformation has been to Flakturm IV at Heiligengeistfeld in Hamburg. This 38 meter tall structure was used as emergency housing after the war, and then in the 1990s was used as a media center.

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More recently, a large construction was built on the roof of Flakturm IV that contains gardens, parks, restaurants, a hotel and sports facilities.

The Stahlhelm, meaning “steel helmet”, has become one of the most iconic symbols of German military history. The Stahlhelm’s introduction during the First World War resulted in an immediate reduction in head injuries, and marked a significant shift in military headgear, moving away from soft caps and cloth hats to metal helmets better suited to modern combat.

It is regarded as one of the best helmet designs ever, and has influenced many of the most prominent helmets in use today, despite being designed over 100 years ago.

Contents

Military Helmets

Military helmets serve as a fundamental component of a soldier’s armor, designed to protect the head against a variety of hazards that are likely to be encountered in combat. The primary purpose of military helmets has evolved significantly over centuries, adapting to advances in weaponry and changing tactics of warfare.

Today, they are multifunctional tools that safeguard soldiers while also accommodating modern military needs, including communication and sensor technology.

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The most apparent and traditional purpose of a military helmet is to provide head protection from ballistic threats. This includes shrapnel from explosions, indirect debris, and, to a lesser extent, bullets. Modern helmets are crafted from advanced materials such as Kevlar, Aramid fibers, or ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, offering significant resistance against high-velocity projectiles and fragmentation. Traditionally, helmets were made from leather or metal.

There is a misconception that helmets are designed specifically to stop bullets. While some helmets can indeed stop relatively low-power rounds, they are typically designed to stop shrapnel and debris, rather than a direct hit from a bullet.

Powerful rounds, such as those fired by rifles or large caliber guns, are usually able to penetrate a helmet with ease. Some modern helmets can stop handgun rounds.

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Aside from their protective uses, helmets can carry psychological and symbolic importance for soldiers and the societies they represent. On a personal level, helmets provide a sense of security and readiness, boosting morale and confidence in a force.

On a broader scale, helmets can symbolize the military prowess, technological sophistication, and cultural values of the armed forces they belong to. This is something that is particularly true for the Stahlhelm, as it became, and still remains a symbol of German military power.

Stahlhelm Development

Origins in 1915

The necessity for the Stahlhelm emerged early in the First World War, as the nature of trench warfare and the prevalence of artillery shells caused a significant number of head injuries among soldiers. Traditional military headgear, such as the leather or cloth caps worn by many armies at the outbreak of the war, offered little protection against the fragments from explosions.

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This led to the German High Command recognizing the urgent need for improved head protection. In 1915, Dr. Friedrich Schwerd of the Technical Institute of Hanover was tasked with designing a helmet that could offer better protection to soldiers. The design criteria focused on coverage, durability, and the ability to deflect shrapnel.

The result was the Model 1916 Stahlhelm, a radical departure from previous military headgear. As indicated by its name, it was introduced in 1916. This naming convention continued through following variants. Its distinctive “coal scuttle” shape was intended to offer maximum protection while allowing for good visibility and hearing.

The helmet featured flared sides and a protruding visor to protect the face, neck, and head from flying debris. Made from a thick gauge of steel, the M16 could absorb significant impacts, and its design was a direct response to the realities of modern industrialized warfare.

Evolution Through the Years

The Stahlhelm’s design evolved through several iterations.

The M16 established the general shape and design of the helmet that would persist through numerous generations. On the sides were two distinct lugs. These provided some ventilation for the wearer, and were the attachment points for a protective armor plate known as the Stirnpanzer, or “brow plate”.

These plates increased the protection over the front of the helmet, but they were rarely used due to their 2 kg weight. The M16 itself could weigh up to 1.4 kg depending on the size. After the M16, the M18 variation was introduced in 1918, which included a cutout on the side to improve hearing and a larger size to accommodate the wearing of a cloth cap underneath for additional warmth.

The interwar years saw further refinement of the Stahlhelm design with the introduction of the M35 model in 1935, which became the standard issue for the German military during the early years of the Second World War.

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The M35 maintained the basic shape of its predecessors but included a rolled edge to reduce manufacturing complexity and improve comfort. The ventilation holes of the earlier models, which were punched directly into the helmet’s shell, were replaced with separate ventilation lugs, a change that streamlined production. These lugs were found to let in lots of cold air in winter, so were often plugged anyway.

As the Second World War progressed, material shortages and the demand for more helmets led to the development of the M40 and M42 models. These models further simplified the design and manufacturing process.

The M40 eliminated the separate ventilation lugs, integrating the vent holes back into the helmet’s shell. The M42 went even further in terms of simplification by introducing a raw edge without the rolled rim, making it quicker and less costly to produce.

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A version without the flared sides was made for the Fallschirmjäger, German paratroopers. The sides were removed so they wouldn’t catch the fast moving air as they jumped out of aircraft, something that could, in the “wrong” conditions, cause neck injuries.

Usage

Upon its introduction in 1916, the Stahlhelm quickly led to a major reduction in head injuries reported on the front lines. As is typical with helmets, it was not capable of stopping a direct hit from a bullet, especially at close range, but was designed to deflect slower moving fragments.

Debris launched by a nearby explosion, bricks from a falling house, shrapnel from a grenade are all things that are significantly less capable of causing head injuries when a helmet is worn.

The Stahlhelm’s coverage of the head, neck and shoulds (from above) was substantial, and it is often regarded as the best helmet of the First World War, and one of the best overall helmet designs ever.

The helmet was also widely exported, with large quantities sent to China in the 1930s. These were used as the primary helmets of China’s National Revolutionary Army during the Second World War. Spain, Bolivia and Venezuela, Croatia and many more used variations of the helmet.

Even the Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong used post-war versions of the helmet during the Vietnam War.

Impact on Military Culture

The Stahlhelm transcended its role as protective gear to become a powerful symbol of German militarism and national identity. Its distinctive silhouette was featured prominently in propaganda materials, aiming to instill a sense of pride and strength in the German populace.

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However, the helmet’s symbolism was double-edged; it also came to be associated with the aggression of the German military campaigns and the ideologies of the Nazi regime during the Second World War. In the post-war period, the Stahlhelm’s image was contentious, with both a legacy of military innovation and a reminder of the dark chapters of 20th-century history.

Post-World War II Usage and Modifications

After the conclusion of the Second World War, the Stahlhelm continued to see use in various forms around the world, testament to its effective design. In the immediate post-war years, the occupying Allied forces in Germany repurposed existing stocks of Stahlhelms for new uses, such as for policing duties.

This use highlighted the helmet’s great design even among former adversaries. Furthermore, the Stahlhelm was adopted or adapted by several other nations during the Cold War period, with countries in Europe, the Middle East, and South America utilizing the helmet for their armed forces. These adaptations often included modifications to fit different military needs and preferences.

Influence on Military Helmets

The Stahlhelm design had a profound influence on the development of military helmets worldwide. Its distinctive silhouette, with features designed to offer maximum protection and comfort, became a benchmark for future helmet designs.

The integration of features such as flared edges to protect the neck and a visor for the face set new standards in helmet design, principles that can be seen in many modern military helmets today. For instance, the American PASGT (Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops) helmet, introduced in the 1980s, and its successors, bear a resemblance to the Stahlhelm in terms of their general shape and purpose.

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In fact, the PASGT was nicknamed “Fritz” by many, due to its similarities with the German Stahlhelm.

Historical Significance

Beyond its practical impact, the Stahlhelm holds a significant place in cultural and historical contexts. It has become an iconic symbol of German military history, recognized around the world for its distinctive design and the historical periods it represents.

In museums, collections, and memorials, the Stahlhelm serves as a tangible link to the past, helping to educate and remind current and future generations of the complexities of war.

However, the helmet also carries with it the burden of history, associated as it is with the aggressive militarism of the World Wars and the ideologies of the Nazi regime. Its depiction in films, literature, and art often invokes these dual aspects, reflecting on the heroism and tragedy of the individual soldiers as well as the broader consequences of nationalism and war.

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This association has actually resulted in them becoming a prized collectors item, with some rarer examples going for upwards of $20,000. Interestingly, those linked to the SS and other morbid Nazi organisations often fetch a higher price.

The Gefechtshelm M92

The Stalhhelm still lives on today in the German military in the form of the Gefechtshelm M92. The Gefechtshelm M92 is the standard combat helmet of the German Armed Forces (Bundeswehr). Introduced in the early 1990s, it replaced the older steel helmets that were used throughout the Cold War era, marking a significant step forward in terms of technology, design, and protection for German soldiers.

The Gefechtshelm M92 is constructed from advanced aramid fiber composites, which provide a high level of ballistic protection while minimizing weight. The use of these materials represents a departure from the steel helmets of the past, offering enhanced protection against shrapnel, ballistic projectiles, and blunt force impacts.

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The helmet’s design is focused on a balance between protection, comfort, and utility, incorporating features that allow for the integration of communication systems, night vision devices, and other head-mounted equipment.

The M92’s distinctive shape is still generally the same as the original Stahlhelm, designed to offer improved coverage for the head and neck while maintaining a low profile, to minimize the target area.

Protection and Comfort

The aramid fibers used in the construction of the M92 provide a level of ballistic protection that is significantly higher than the older Stahlhelm steel helmets, without a corresponding increase in weight. This is crucial for soldier endurance and mobility, as heavy equipment can lead to fatigue and reduced combat effectiveness over time. The helmet includes a padded interior for added comfort and shock absorption, along with an adjustable suspension system that ensures a secure fit for various head sizes.

Recognizing the importance of technology and communication on the modern battlefield, the M92 helmet is designed to be compatible with a range of accessories. This includes mounts for night vision goggles (NVGs), rails for attaching lights or cameras, and the ability to integrate with various communication headsets. This allows soldiers to customize their helmets based on the mission requirements.

Service

Since its introduction, the Gefechtshelm M92 has seen extensive service with the German Armed Forces in various international deployments, including peacekeeping missions and combat operations. Its performance in these diverse environments has validated the design choices made during its development, demonstrating the helmet’s effectiveness in providing protection and functionality in a wide range of conditions.

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It maintains the line of world-leading German helmet design that originated back in the First World War with the Stahlhelm.

The United States Mk.2 grenade, colloquially known as the “Pineapple” grenade due to its distinctively grooved exterior, is an iconic piece of military ordnance that served as the standard-issue hand grenade for the U.S. armed forces from World War I through the Vietnam War.

Its design, effectiveness in combat, and its presence in Hollywood movies have made it a legendary tool of war.

Contents

Development

Mk.1 Failure

Prior to the First World War, the concept of hand grenades was not new, but their use was limited and designs varied widely. The early stages of the First World War demonstrated the need for effective trench warfare weapons. The static nature of trench warfare, with opposing forces entrenched in close proximity, highlighted the utility of hand grenades for clearing enemy trenches and bunkers.

The U.S. entered the war with little experience in modern, large-scale warfare and lacked many of the advanced weapons that European powers had developed. The U.S. military’s initial hand grenade, the Mk.1, entered service in 1917, but proved to be inadequate for the demands of trench warfare.

It was a fragmentation grenade inspired by the British Mills Bomb and the French F1, but it suffered from reliability issues, and its design did not produce enough shrapnel to be effective in the close-quarters combat typical of trench warfare environments.

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As fragmentation grenades, their primary means of inflicting damage against an enemy is with small pieces of shrapnel that are propelled from the grenade at high speed.

Need for the Mk.2

In response to the shortcomings of the Mk.1 and inspired by European designs, the U.S. Ordnance Department began developing a new hand grenade that would meet the needs of American forces. The result was the Mk.2 grenade, which featured a cast iron body designed to fragment upon detonation, creating a lethal radius of shrapnel.

This design was aimed at maximizing the grenade’s effectiveness in trench clearing and close combat situations. This was achieved with rectangular lumps that make up the grenade’s casing. Upon detonation, these lumps became shrapnel.

While later analysis showed that the grooves did not significantly affect shrapnel dispersion, they did provide a more secure grip and prevented the grenade from rolling on uneven surfaces, which were practical benefits in the muddy, chaotic environments of trench warfare.

The Mk.2 grenade’s design allowed for mass production, an essential factor given the enormous demand for munitions in observed during the First World War. Its relatively simple design, compared to more complex mechanisms in some contemporary grenades, facilitated rapid manufacturing and ease of use by soldiers with minimal training. This standardization was crucial for the U.S. military, which had to quickly equip a rapidly expanding force with effective weapons.

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Despite its aim to replace the Mk.1, the Mk.2 only entered limited service during the First World War. Still, it soon proved to be a much more reliable design.

Mk.2 Grenade Design

The Mk.2 grenade’s body was made of cast iron, chosen for its ability to fragment upon detonation into lethal shrapnel. The exterior of the grenade featured a segmented pattern, initially intended to control the fragmentation and increase the grenade’s lethality.

Although later evaluations suggested that the grooves did not significantly influence the fragmentation pattern, they provided two unintended yet valuable benefits: enhanced grip and reduced roll. The textured surface allowed soldiers to hold and throw the grenade more securely, especially in wet or muddy conditions common in trench warfare. Additionally, the segmented design prevented the grenade from rolling away on uneven ground. This helped during transport, and keeping thrown grenade on target.

It measured approximately 4.5 inches in height and 2.5 inches in diameter, with a weight of around 21 ounces (about 600 grams) when fully equipped with its explosive filler. This size and weight made the grenade manageable for most soldiers to throw, while still housing enough explosive material to be effective in combat situations.

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Explosive Filler

The Mk.2 grenade was filled with a number of different explosive fillings over its service life. These ranged from Trojan nitrostarch to EC smokeless powder. Eventually these were replaced by more powerful and stable high-explosives like TNT. This transition significantly increased the grenade’s destructive potential. The choice of explosive material was a crucial aspect of the design, as it needed to provide a reliable and powerful blast to generate enough fragmentation effects.

Training variants were filled with black powder low explosives for a smaller blast.

Fuse Mechanism

One of the most critical components of the Mk.2 grenade was its fuse mechanism, which underwent several iterations throughout its service life. The earliest versions were found to be unreliable and potentially hazardous. These were subsequently replaced by more sophisticated timed fuses, such as the M5, M6, and M204 series, which provided a more consistent and safer delay (typically 4 to 5 seconds) between the release of the lever (“spoon”) and detonation.

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Fuses were inserted into a threaded hole in the top of the grenade. On later grenades this hole was also used to fill the grenade, compared to a plug in the bottom found on earlier types.

Safety was a paramount consideration in the design of the Mk.2 grenade, with several features intended to prevent accidental detonation. The fuse was triggered by the removal of the “spoon”, a thin spring loaded lever that ran down the side of the grenade.

The spoon was held in place by a safety pin. Even with the pin removed, as long as the user holds down the spoon the grenade will not activate. To operate the grenade, the user must remove the safety pin by pulling on a ring.

Upon throwing the grenade, the spoon is ejected by a spring, activating a percussion primer in the fuse. This ignites an element that burns for 4-5 seconds, depending on the type, that will then ignite the main detonator for the explosives.

One complaint about the Mk.2 was a quiet sound made by the fuse as the element burned, along with a small amount of smoke. This was largely why the Mk.2 would eventually be replaced.

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Variants and Modifications

The Mk.2 came in a few different variants, mostly relating to the type of fuse and explosive filling inside. Externally, it remained virtually unchanged throughout its production.

Training versions of the grenade contained low explosives, allowing soldiers to practice with a device that simulated the weight and handling characteristics of the live grenade without the explosive hazard. These were painted black.

High explosive versions were painted yellow. During the Second World War, they were repainted to olive drab, with a small band of yellow left at the top of the cast body.

Service

First World War

Introduced during the First World War, the Mk.2 grenade quickly became a valuable tool for American forces. The static nature of trench warfare necessitated weapons that could clear or disrupt enemy soldiers in fortified positions.

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The ability to be thrown into the small, densely packed spaces of enemy trenches or bunkers made it fragmentation grenades great assets for infantry units. Its fragmentation design was particularly suited for the close-quarters combat of trench warfare, where the production of shrapnel could inflict casualties over a broad area.

Second World War

During the Second World War, the Mk.2 grenade saw much wider use compared to the First World War, serving across all theaters of operation, from the European to the Pacific fronts. The Mk.2 was utilized not only as an anti-personnel weapon but also for clearing machine gun nests, destroying enemy fortifications, and defending against attacking troops.

Seen hanging from the uniforms of GIs or packed into crates, the Mk.2 joined other equipment like the M1 Garand, Willys Jeep and P-51 Mustang as legendary symbols of the US military during the war.

One of the key strengths of the Mk.2 grenade was its versatility across the varied environments of the Second World War. In the dense forests and towns of Europe, the grenade was used to flush out enemy soldiers from cover, while in the Pacific theater, it was vital in combat against Japanese forces in jungles and island fortifications.

The grenade’s design, particularly its grooved exterior, facilitated this versatility by making it easy to handle and throw accurately, even in adverse weather conditions or when wearing gloves. Plus, it was small enough to be transported and carried in large numbers.

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Millions of Mk.2 grenades were built from its entry into service during the First World War to the end of the Second World War. This meant that, despite being succeeded in the early 1950s, there were enough of them to see use in both the Korean and Vietnam Wars.

Training and Handling

The effectiveness of the Mk.2 grenade in operational settings was heavily dependent on the training and proficiency of the soldiers using it. Training emphasized not only the mechanics of arming and throwing the grenade but also the tactics of using cover, timing throws for maximum effect, and coordinating grenade use with other infantry weapons. Soldiers were trained to throw grenades from a variety of positions, including standing, kneeling, and prone, to adapt to the realities of the battlefield.

Operational use of the Mk.2 grenade also highlighted the importance of safety and reliability. The development of safer fusing mechanisms and the addition of safety features, such as the safety clip, reduced the risk of accidental detonations. These improvements were critical in ensuring that the Mk.2 could be used effectively under the stress of combat conditions, where quick decision-making and reliability were paramount.

By providing individual soldiers with the ability to deliver explosive force at a distance, the Mk.2 enhanced the lethality and versatility of infantry units. Its role in clearing enemy positions, disrupting troop movements, and inflicting casualties played a part in the tactical outcomes of numerous engagements.

Replacement

The Mk.2 was finally replaced in US service by the M26 grenade. Following the fruit-themed nicknames, the M26 known as the “lemon grenade” for its oval shape. The M26 offered improved reliability, safety, and fragmentation control compared to the Mk.2 “Pineapple”.

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Its design featured a smooth outer casing and an internal fragmentation coil that produced a uniform fragmentation pattern, enhancing its lethality. It also improved on the Mk.2 by having a completely silent fuse that did not emit any smoke, decreasing the chances of being detected by the enemy.

The M26 weighed 450 g, and was filled with 165 g of Composition B, an explosive that detonates at higher velocities than TNT. The M26 was a staple in U.S. military operations until it was succeeded by near the end of the Vietnam War.

Other Interesting Grenades

MK1 Illumination Grenade

The Mk1 Illumination grenade is a device that creates an intense bright light to be used for illumination or as a signal. It is 4.4 inches tall and weighs 270 g. Visually, it closely resembles the M26 fragmentation grenade.

Inside, the grenade contains an illuminating compound and a black powder fuse. When the grenade’s pin is pulled, the fuse is triggered and detonates the black powder after a 7 second delay. This destroys the grenade’s casing, revealing and igniting the illuminating compound, which burns with a brightness of 50-60,000 candlepower for 25 seconds.

Offensive Grenade Mk IIIA2

Initial versions of this grenade entered service in 1918. They were created as conussion grenades that could be used against enemy forces in small spaces (trenches, bunkers etc.), where maximum damage could be caused without risking friendly forces to fragmentation effects.

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The Mk IIIA2 is a later version, with a cylindrical pressed-fiber body that contained 230 g of TNT.